We’ve introduced some selectors previously.

Using tag selectors, class, id, how to combine them, how to target multiple classes, how to style several selectors in the same rule, how to follow the page hierarchy with child and direct child selectors, and adjacent siblings.

We have more selectors we can use:

• attribute selectors
• pseudo-class selectors
• pseudo-element selectors

NOTE ℹ️: you don’t have to memorize all of this. Skim through and use as reference when you need to use this later.

Attribute selectors

We can check if an element has an attribute using the [] syntax. p[id] will select all p tags in the page that have an id attribute, regardless of its value:

p[id] {
  /* ... */
}

Inside the brackets, you can check the attribute value using =, and the CSS will be applied only if the attribute matches the exact value specified:

p[id='my-id'] {
  /* ... */
}

While = let us check for the exact value, we have other operators:

• *= checks if the attribute contains the specified partial
• ^= checks if the attribute starts with the specified partial
• $= checks if the attribute ends with the specified partial
• |= checks if the attribute starts with the specified partial and it’s followed by a dash (common in classes, for example), or just contains the partial
• ~= checks if the specified partial is contained in the attribute, but separated by spaces from the rest

For example:

p[id*='test'] {
  
}

will match <p id="test-1"></p> and any other p element with id containing test

(you can find more information on these on MDN)

All the checks we mentioned are case-sensitive.

If you add i just before the closing bracket, the check will be case insensitive.

Pseudo-class selectors

Pseudo-classes are predefined keywords that are used to select an element based on its state or to target a specific child.

They start with a single colon :.

They can be used as part of a selector, and they are very useful to style active or visited links for example, change the style on hover, focus, target the first child, or odd rows. Very handy in many cases.

These are the most popular pseudo-classes you will likely use:

:active	an element being activated by the user (e.g. clicked). Mostly used on links or buttons
:checked	a checkbox, option, or radio input type that are enabled
:default	the default in a set of choices (like option in a select or radio buttons)
:disabled	an element disabled
:empty	an element with no children
:enabled	an element that’s enabled (opposite of :disabled)
:first-child	the first child of a group of siblings
:focus	the element with focus
:hover	an element hovered with the mouse
:last-child	the last child of a group of siblings
:link	a link that’s not been visited
:not()	any element not matching the selector passed. E.g. :not(span)
:nth-child()	an element matching the specified position
:nth-last-child()	an element matching the specific position, starting from the end
:only-child	an element without any siblings
:required	a form element with the required attribute set
:root	represents the html element. It’s like targeting html, but it’s more specific. Useful in https://flaviocopes.com/css-variables/.
:target	the element matching the current URL fragment (for inner navigation in the page)
:valid	form elements that validated client-side successfully
:visited	a link that’s been visited

Let’s do an example. A common one, actually. You want to style a link, so you create a CSS rule to target the a element:

a {
  color: yellow;
}

Things seem to work fine until you click one link. The link goes back to the predefined color (blue) when you click it. Then when you open the link and go back to the page, now the link is blue.

Why does that happen?

Because the link when clicked changes state, and goes into the :active state. And when it’s been visited, it is in the :visited state. Forever, until the user clears the browsing history.

So, to correctly make the link yellow across all states, you need to write

a,
a:visited,
a:active {
  color: yellow;
}

:nth-child() deserves a special mention. It can be used to target odd or even children with :nth-child(odd) and :nth-child(even).

It is commonly used in lists to color odd lines differently from even lines:

li:nth-child(odd) {
  color: white;
  background-color: black;
}

You can also use it to target the first 3 children of an element with :nth-child(-n+3). Or you can style 1 in every 5 elements with :nth-child(5n).

Some pseudo-classes are just used for printing, like :first, :left, :right, so you can target the first page, all the left pages, and all the right pages, which are usually styled slightly differently.

Pseudo element selectors

Pseudo-elements are used to style a specific part of an element.

They start with a double colon ::.

Sometimes you will spot them in the wild with a single colon, but this is only a syntax supported for backward compatibility reasons. You should use 2 colons to distinguish them from pseudo-classes.

::before and ::after are probably the most used pseudo-elements. They are used to add content before or after an element, like icons for example.

Here’s the list of the pseudo-elements:

::after	creates a pseudo-element after the element
::before	creates a pseudo-element before the element
::first-letter	can be used to style the first letter of a block of text
::first-line	can be used to style the first line of a block of text
::selection	targets the text selected by the user

Let’s do an example. Say you want to make the first line of a paragraph slightly bigger in font size, a common thing in typography, using the font-size property:

p::first-line {
  font-size: 2rem;
}

Or maybe you want the first letter to be bolder, which you can do using the font-weight property:

p::first-letter {
  font-weight: bolder;
}

::after and ::before are a bit less intuitive. I remember using them when I had to add icons using CSS.

You specify the content property to insert any kind of content after or before an element:

p::before {
  content: url(/myimage.png);
}

.myElement::before {
  content: 'Hey Hey!';
}

Lessons in this unit:

0:	Introduction
1:	Colors
2:	More selectors
3:	Cascade
4:	Specificity
5:	Units
6:	▶︎ Advanced selectors
7:	Typography
8:	The box model
9:	The display property
10:	Responsive design
11:	DEMO Create a simple design